Complications of Chemoradiotherapy for Locally Advanced Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

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Introduction

Approximately one-third of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) present with locally advanced disease, the majority of whom are treated with concurrent chemotherapy and thoracic radiation therapy. Concurrent chemoradiation therapy is superior to sequential chemotherapy followed by thoracic radiation therapy or thoracic radiation therapy alone.^1-3 However, this improvement in survival is achieved at the expense of increased toxicity. As a significant proportion of patients treated with chemoradiation therapy develop acute and delayed complications, skillful management of these problems is essential. This article summarizes the diagnosis and management of unique complications associated with chemoradiation therapy for locally advanced NSCLC.

Acute Complications

Esophagitis

The incidence of acute severe esophagitis varies from 1.3% with radiation therapy alone to 14%-52% with concurrent chemoradiation therapy.^4,5 The definition of moderate and severe esophagitis (grade 3 and 4) has been defined variously. The most current version of the National Cancer Institute—Common Toxicity Criteria (NCI—CTC) definition emphasizes the need for nutritional requirement and complications in the grading of esophagitis. Those who require a gastrostomy tube would be designated as having grade 3 esophagitis and those with complications such as perforation and stricture would be defined as having grade 4 esophagitis. Patients with grade 1 esophagitis are diagnosed incidentally when endoscopy is performed for other reasons. The reported incidence of severe esophagitis (grades 3 and 4) varies from 1% with standard once-daily radiation therapy to 52% with chemotherapy (cisplatin, gemcitabine [Gemzar]) and radiation therapy.⁵

Factors predisposing patients to develop severe esophagitis include radiation dose, fractionation (a twice-daily regimen poses a higher risk than a once-daily regimen), use of concurrent chemotherapy, and the volume of the esophagus receiving at least 55 Gy (Table 1). Advanced age (70 years or older) may increase the likelihood of severe esophagitis as well.

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The Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG 9410) conducted a randomized study  comparing sequential chemotherapy (cisplatin and vinblastine) followed by standard radiation therapy with platinum-based chemotherapy administered concurrently with standard radiation therapy or hyperfractionated radiation therapy.⁶ In this study, elderly patients (70 years or older) had a higher incidence of esophagitis than did younger patients. This difference was noticed regardless of whether radiation therapy was administered once daily (42% vs 33%) or twice daily (60% vs 42%).

The symptoms of acute radiation-induced esophagitis usually begin in the second or third week of radiation therapy, when patients have received around 18-30 Gy. The symptoms often begin with difficulty in swallowing solids and sometimes progress to worsening dysphagia for liquids and painful swallowing (odynophagia) and persistent pain requiring narcotics or intravenous hydration. The severity of esophagitis reaches its peak at around 1 month in about one-fourth of patients and at around 2 months in one-third of patients.⁴ Although the severity of esophagitis is often well documented in prospective studies, the data on the duration of symptomatic esophagitis affecting quality of life are sparse. A few patients with acute severe esophagitis may develop esophageal stricture requiring dilatation several months after the completion of radiation therapy.

Treatment of acute esophagitis is entirely symptomatic. A bland diet that would not irritate the already inflamed esophagus is recommended. An oral suspension mixture consisting of a local anesthetic (lidocaine), surface-coating agent (diphenhydramine), and nystatin mixture taken before meals may offer some transient symptomatic relief for patients with mild to moderately severe esophagitis. At this phase, it is critical to provide dietary counseling to maintain adequate caloric and fluid intake. Patients with severe esophagitis may require intravenous fluids and placement of a gastrostomy/jejunostomy tube for enteral feeding. Parenteral nutrition should be avoided, if possible, in view of the associated risks (chiefly infection-related complications). Endoscopic evaluation may be necessary in some patients suspected of superadded fungal or viral infections.

Amifostine (Ethyol), an organic thiophosphate that is converted to its active metabolite by cellular alkaline phosphatase, has been evaluated as a possible treatment alternative for patients with radiation-induced esophagitis. The data on the ability of amifostine to prevent or ameliorate radiation-induced esophagitis are somewhat conflicting. Greek investigators reported  a significant decrease (41%) in the incidence of esophagitis with the use of amifostine along with concurrent chemoradiation therapy compared with chemoradiation therapy alone.^7,8  Similar results have been reported in small studies  from the United States and Singapore.^9,10 However, a larger US cooperative group phase III study (RTOG 9801) involving 243 patients treated with chemoradiation therapy reported no reduction in the development of severe esophagitis (as defined by the NCI—CTC and physician assessment) with the addition of amifostine.¹¹ At this time, amifostine is not used regularly in the United States for the prevention of esophagitis in patients receiving concurrent chemoradiation therapy for locally advanced NSCLC.

Fatigue

Fatigue is a common problem in patients with cancer. In one study, fatigue was reported to be present in more than 75% of patients undergoing radiation therapy for lung cancer.¹² Fatigue is related to the disease process itself; radiation therapy; chemotherapy; and other factors, including anemia and coexistent infections. Psychological stress and cytokine production have also been suggested as possible additional causes of fatigue in these patients. In the absence of extensive disease, radiation-related fatigue lasts a few weeks to months. Identifying and correcting reversible factors such as anemia and infection may ameliorate some of the symptoms. Unfortunately, there are no specific treatments for cancer-related fatigue. More awareness of cancer-related fatigue is absolutely necessary.

Skin Reactions

Skin reactions are common after radiation therapy. They range from erythema, dry desquamation to moist desquamation and frank ulcer to acute mild irritation to frank ulceration. Typical changes occur with higher doses of radiation (around 2,000 cGy).¹³ The Cancer Care Ontario’s supportive care group (SCCG) systematically reviewed the data from well over two dozen trials to find optimal strategies for prevention and treatment of skin reactions. In this review, washing with mild soap was the only method shown to be effective in preventing skin reactions. In the opinion of the SCCG experts, plain, unscented, lanolin-free hydrophobic ointment was thought to be helpful in preventing severe skin reactions.  Topical moisturizing creams, along with topical steroids, may relieve symptoms in patients with established skin reactions.

Cough

Cough, a common symptom in patients with lung cancer, is often a result of multiple factors, including the disease process, superimposed infections, and possibly inflammation of the tracheobronchial tree from radiation. Radiation pneumonitis (discussed later) develops much later in the course of treatment. Cough is managed symptomatically with either over-the-counter cough suppressants or prescription narcotics (hydromorphone, morphine).

Lhermitte's Sign

Lhermitte's sign, an infrequent sequela of radiation to the cervical spinal cord, presents as transient tingling along the spine upon neck flexion. Although this complication has been reported more commonly in patients with Hodgkin's lymphoma receiving mantle field radiation or in those receiving neck radiation, occasionally patients treated for locally advanced NSCLC report similar symptoms. After radiotherapy, some patients may complain of tingling and numbness in the back, shooting down the spine upon neck flexion. In an analysis of 40 patients who developed Lhermitte’s sign¹⁴ compared with those who did not, two factors emerged as strong predictors of eventual development of Lhermitte’s sign: the use of larger fractions (200 cGy) and total radiation exceeding 5,000 Gy to the cervical spinal cord.